Review Of The Presentation Day

After having to undergo last minute alterations to our buggy design and code, we we're in a decent position for the presentation on Tuesday afternoon. On our first trial of the test track Dr Thompson put together, the buggy seemed to make good progress - only to lose its way on the third corner of the track. After frantic attempts to re enter LDR values into our code, we eventually were forced to bow out. We then tried our hand at the two symbols. Needless to say the buggy didnt fair extremely well on these, but it gave valiant effort on the T-Junction exercise where it did stop, but failed to reverse. The buggy also turned the opposing way on the L symbol. Although the performance was disappointing, our buggy was among the relative 'high performers' on the day and hopefully the marks will be adjusted in a standardised fashion taking this into consideration.

Ive compiled a few reasons why maybe things didn't go to plan on the day of the presentation:

1. The Track-

It was made of cardboard of an off-white colour and some sort of thick belt like material put in place to act as a 'black line'. Our buggy simply wasn't able to follow this line effectively due to mechanical constraints of our front wheel/ ball bearing, and having tested the buggy on normal white paper with a seamless printed black line on this, it was always going to be a difficult task.

2. The Light-

The room lighting also affected the operation of the buggy, in particular the LDR's that are obviously crucial to the working capabilities of the buggy. My group actually calibrated the LDR's in a room that was no where near as bright as room 160 and in hindsight maybe should have taken this into consideration. We set binary values of 90 for both LDR's so that once reaching a value higher than this (i.e light levels were low) either the left or right motor would stop, bringing the buggy back on line with the black line. When we were in room 160 and went onto picaxe to re-calibrate, we were getting readings of 40 off of the black line, and only 75 on it, meaning that whilst conducting the trial, neither motor was receiving the 'stop signals' because the values we had were too high for that particular lighting in the room. We did attempt to turn the lights off in the room but consequently found out that room 160 is motion sensor -responsive, therefore making it impossible to turn the lights off.

3. The LDRs!!!

The LDRs themselves were not of the best quality and because of their sensitivity we had to keep changing the values of the program. In theory the program was perfect, but we just couldn't get it to perform in practise on the day, although we have video evidence of it working on our own track.

Feedback on the task as a whole:

The group worked well together and after many meetings managed to put together a good buggy design. We delegated tasks effectively and tried to share workload evenly, although naturally those who had more experience in the electronics area (Onwell & Raj) shone through and really took the buggy to a competitive level by providing direction in times of uncertainty so a big thanks to those two. As for improvements I would say that we probably should have used an extra LDR because of the accuracy benefits it brings. Instead of using two where effectively the LDR has to wait until it has come off the black line to start again and sort of over correcred itself and had to come back a number of times, the third LDR would act as an 'adjudicator' so if the buggy was going to over correct itself, this would stop the over correction and normal service would continue.

PICAXE Code - Line Following

This is the PICAXE code used for the buggy on the protoype testing day is shown below. It impliments the use of if....else command. Low's and High's are used to send outputs to the connected components such as the LED's and motors. It also uses sub-routines to keep the code neat and efficient as possible.



symbol switchstate = b0

main:

if switchstate = 0 then
debug switchstate ;used so we can see the state the swith b0 is in
goto program1


else
goto program2
endif

goto main


program1: ;used to follow the track

readadc 1, b1 ;reads and converts the analogue input from left LDR
debug b1 ;used to calibrate the left LDR
readadc 2, b2 ;reads and converts the analogue input from right LDR
debug b2 ;used to calibrate the right LDR


high 5 ;sends an output high to the two LED's
high 6

if b2 > 110 and b1 ;if the left LDR is on white and the right LDR on black
goto right
endif

if b2 <> 110 then ;if the left LDR is on black and the right LDR on white
goto left

else ;otherwise move forwards
goto straight

endif
goto main

program2: ;used to identify the symbols

readadc 1, b1 ;reads and converts the analogue input from left LDR
debug b1 ;used to calibrate the left LDR
readadc 2, b2 ;reads and converts the analogue input from right LDR
debug b2 ;used to calibrate the right LDR


high 5 ;sends an output high to the two LED's
high 6

if b2 > 110 and b1 > 110 then ;if the left LDR is on black and the right LDR on black
low 1 low 2 low 3 low 4 ;stay stationary for three seconds
pause 3000
endif

goto program2

if b2 > 110 and b1 ;if the left LDR is on white and the right LDR on black
goto left ;turn left for three seconds
endif

if b2 <> 110 then ;if the left LDR is on black and the right LDR on white
goto right ;turn right for three seconds

else ;otherwise move backwards
goto back
endif

goto main


straight:

low 1 high 2
low 3 high 4

goto main

right:


low 1 low 2 low 3 high 4
goto main

left:

low 1 high 2 low 3 low 4
goto main


back:

low 2 high 1 low 4 high 3
goto main

Buggy Following Magnetic Strip

This is a video preview of our buggy following the Magnetic Strip

The Completed Buggy

The images below show the completed buggy with all the components connected. They also show the improvements we made, such as the shield which blocks out ambient light. This final buggy also impliments the use of brighter white LED's instead of the red type used earlier. These provide better light and therefore increase the sensitivity of the LDR's. This change has lead to a significant improvement in line following performance.

Buggy Build Update

A couple of improvements have been made to the buggy in order to improve the performance of the line following.

We experienced problems with the LDR's not reading light the way we would have liked it to. Because the LDR's read all visible light, the sensitivity repeatedly changed in different ambient lighting conditions. At one time during testing the LDR's readings changed by 40 from around 100 to 60 when taking the buggy into different rooms. To solve this problem we incorperated the use of a shield which blocked ambient light from reching the LDR's. This shield was made from black card and was assembled around the two sensors. The black card reduces the reflection of the light from the LED's. This means that only light from the LED's is reflected from the white surface to the LDR's, therefore improving the line following performance of the buggy.

Line following code ( First programme code)

Following the first test with the LED using the simple program shown in the video of the 1-04-2010, we came up with this first code to programme the buggy to follow the line.

The Above picture shows the first programme code

Analysis of the Programme (CODE).

Including debug in the programme, we wanted to view how the values included in the programme affected the manner in which the buggy will respond. This way it made it easy to adjust and hence modify the programme. Also, we decided to use a combination of "if...then" statements and sub-routines because we found this method of programming much easier to write and simple to undestand.
However, after writing this programme and programming the buggy, we found out a couple of errors with the code. Firstly, we discovered the range of values associated to the LDR (245, above and below) was quite large and the fluctations of the values hardly went up to 245. So making the values much smaller sounded very reasonable. Secondly, because the LDR was affected by the intensity of light at any one time of the day in a room, it was difficult to get a specific and accurate value to assign to the LDR since light conditions were not stable. Lastly, we noticed that whenever the buggy was moving it kept going in a circular path. After careful analysis we realised that the left and right sub-routines were interchanged.

Check out for the new and approved code with new values and improved sub-routines.

LED change

With the presentation looming our utter most concern is for the buggy to complete the course and this has led to some inspired last minute changes. So far throughout testing 2 red LEDs were being used with the intention of carrying these on to the presentation but unfortunately or rather fortunatelywe have discovered that we are these are causing calibration problems.

This is due to the red LED not providing enough constant elumination to the LDRs so as to maintain the same binary analogue values. This has led us to test and switch to using to white LEDs even though they are more costly. This is simplly because the illumination they give is far much superior that what we have been testing so far and therfore this should boost our line following chances and at the same time reduce the need for constant re-calibration.

Circuitry Testing

This is full circuitry connected to test the code. this is the full set up of our buggy before being assembled to the chassis and using variable resistors as part of the analogue input. Just for testing sake we first used two LEDs as outputs instead of the driver board and two motor set up. This helped us test the code without having fully assembled the buggy.

We have decided to stick to the breadboard for our circuitry instead of other options such as circuit boards or smaller bread boards and this will help us keep the costs low for our buggy. This therefore means we will have to model the chassis around the full bread board.

After tests the circuitry worked and therefore the next step was to connected it up to the motor board and motors and again this worked beautifully using simple code to test the connections, meaning we are ready for assembly and programming the code into the chip.

Cicuitry

This is the circuitry used to run our buggy. Using an analogue input of LDRs connected via two 4.7k resistors instead of variable resistors so as to give us a more steady analogue value. This is then outputted to two motors connected through the motor driver board so as to control the direction for our buggy. Two LEDs are also used connected in series as outputs so as to give illumination to the LDRs.

Care has to be taken when assembling so as to keep away from frying the delicate chips or short circuiting.

Line following Problems

Over the last few days we've been experiencing problems getting the buggy to follow the line.

Mainly because we need to think about three scenarios.

1. When the left Ldr is above white paper

2. When the left Ldr is covered by the line

3. When the Right Ldr is above white paper

4. When the Right Ldr is covered by the line.

Due to the nature of the first program, we dont require any reversing of any wheels at any time although some groups have opted to reverse either one of the wheels if its relative LDR cross onto the black line, as a way of getting it to turn back into the path require.

We have opted for a simple 'stop' of the relative wheel. So for example, if the Ldr controlling the right wheel crossed onto the black line, this wheel would stop motion while the other wheel would continue to travel, effectively using the stopped wheel as a pivot for motion. This would bring the directed path of the buggy back to where we want it.

The four scenarios are all independent of eachother at this moment in time except for obviously both Ldrs being above white paper, where we have set a command of just going straight for this scenario. I'll upload the video of this pivoting in practise after this.

Buggy Build Update

Now that the chassis for the buggy is complete we started to mount the breadboard and circuitary.


The breadboard is the largest component, so we have decided to mount it along the top of the chassis in between the two wheels.

The PICAXE project board is mounted above the breadboard to avoid a short circuit. This also improves the aesthetics of the design as it now ressembles a RC Buggy.

The motors are mounted onto the bottom of the chassis in order to keep maximum space available across the top for the breadboard.

The battery back is mounted off the back of the PICAXE project board. The reason for this is so that the wheels have increased traction because of the load being directly over the wheels.

The LED's and LDR's are connected to the front end of the breadboard, in order to keep the circuitary neat. This also means the length of the wires used to connect each component can be shorter.
The sensing system being a fair distance from the motors improves the performence of the buggy. This is because the motors need to turn less when correcting itself whilst following the line. The motor turning less, decreases the angle of correction and would therefore increase the line following speed and accuracy of the buggy.

Floating Role

This is just addressed to Dr Thompson.
On reading my posts you may wonder exactly what role I had in this group, but because i am the 6th member of the group I just took on a floating role and commented and helped in all areas. Just to avoid any confusion I posted this.

Buggy Build Update

We have now constructed a prototype version of the buggy using some Mechano type hardware bought from 'the entertainer' (no reinburstment Dr Thompson?). We have developed a chassis where the circuit board will be mounted on top and attached the two motors we are using to power the large yellow wheels to the underside of the chassis. For directional stability we have attached a ball that is moveable in all directions, to the front of the design.

Manufacture Of The Chassis

The chassis will be used as a base to mount all of the individual components we will be using, such as the wheels, the motors and circuitry.

As a group we thought of many different ideas for the chassis, including the use of lego, acrylic sheet and cardboard. The list was narrowed down as we thought most of these ideas were not feasible for a number of reasons, such as rigidity and being difficult to build.

Three ideas were selected to be feasible, one of them being a used RC buggy chassis and the other two employing the use of meccano and plywood.



The used RC buggy was specifically designed for a purpose by its manufacturer. Hence the holes and mounts on the chassis. If this was selected the holes and mounts would get in the way of our circuitry. The holes also look visually unappealing.

Choosing to manufacturer the buggy chassis using plywood gives us more freedom to change the chassis to fit the circuitry. However, once the chassis has been manufactured to fit it is difficult to adapt it, therefore a new chassis would need to be built.

Using meccano to build the chassis is the most feasible and practical idea because it holds no limitations. If the design of the chssis needs to be changed at any point it can easily be done. Also, meccano would be the most visually appealing chassis out of the three pictured above.

Choosing Input Sensing Method

As the objective of the project is for the buggy to follow the line, we will be using 1 of 2 inputs to send a signal to the motors when the is a change in light intensity. The choice we have is between using LDRs to send a signal when light intensity changes or Magnetic Reed Switches to send a signal when the magnetic strip is detected.

To help us make the best choice we set up a simple circuit outputting the LDR/Reed Switch to a simple LED to represent our motor.

Having carried out this test it was easy to make the decision that LDRs would be used as our input. We decided to use 2 LDRs which will be used in series with LEDs to send an input into the chip when the magnetic strip is sensed.

Using LDR's to track the black line

A line follower robot works on the same principle as a light follower robot. However, instead of tracking light the LDR (Light Dependant Resistor) is used to track the black line. This is done by programming the chip connected to the LDR to differentiate the line colour and the colour of its surroundings (in our case a black line on a white background).

It is possible to use one LDR to act as the sensing device to track the line; however the buggy would not follow the line smoothly. To improve the smoothness (resolution) of the line following, more LDR’s would need to be used.

As we are limited to the number of LDR’s we can connect to our project board the group have made a decision to use 2 LDR’s in a line combination.

The diagram above shows how the buggy could follow the black line. It uses the two LDR's (S1 and S2) to navigate its way along the line in a zig zag motion. The LDR's (S1 and S2) read the intensity of the light being reflected from the track surface. So, when S1 is directly above the black line the light intensity is low making the buggy turn left. Smilarly, when S2 is directly above the black line the light intensity is low making the buggy turn right. We could include another case where neither S1 or S2 are above the black line. When this is the case both wheels would be turning at the same rate, therefore keeping the buggy moving in a forward direction.

This is the program that was used to illumate the LED when testing the effects of using the magnetic strip. This is demonstrated in the videos that will follow
-------------------------------------------------------
symbol Motor = 2
symbol LDR = 1

Main:
gosub Light
gosub Spin

goto main

Light:
if pin1 = 1 then
low 1
else pin1 = 0
high 1
endif

return

Spin:
high Motor
pause 200
low Motor

return

Sensors

Some background information on sensor design.

Line-following robots have difficulty tracking masking tape when the robot employs infrared LEDs and sensors. It seems most masking tape is to some extent transparent to infrared, thus the background "color" bleeds through and the robot can't see the line.

To avoid that problem, two pairs of ordinary photoresistors can be used. Also called photocells, they're able to see visible light in the same ranges as the human eye. So, if you can see the line, hopefully the robot can too.

Photoresistors react quite slowly however , which could hamper a robot that's driving around on a fast track.

Below an example of the sensors plus LED.

sourced from: http://www.robotroom.com

Line robots

My first blog as part of the Group E buggy team. I have addressed the area of the design of the buggy, the specific details of execution of function and also mechanical design.

The line follower is one of the self operating robot that follows a line that drawn on the floor. The basic operations of the line following are as follows:

1. Capture line position with optical sensors mounted at front end of the robot. Most use several number of photo-reflectors, and some leading use an image sensor for image processing. The line sensing procss requires high resolution and high robustness.
2. Stear robot to track the line with any stearing mechanism. This is just a servo operation.
3. Control speed according to the lane condition. Running speed is limited during passing a curve due to friction of the tire and the floor.

There are two line styles, white line on the black floor and black line on the white floor. Most adopting the first one in line width of between 15 and 25 mm.

- Mechanics

Right image shows bottom view and side view of the built line following robot. All mechanical and electrical parts are mounted on a proto board, and it also constitutes the chasis.

The line following robot is upheld in three points of two driving wheels and a free wheel. The driving wheels are made with a 7 mm dia ball bearing and a rubber tire. The free wheel is a 5 mm dia ball bearing attached loosely. To drive driving wheels, two tiny motors that are used for mobile phones, pager or any mobile equipment are used. Its shaft is pressed onto the tire with a spring plate, the output torque is transferred to the wheels.

The stearing mechanism is realized in differential drive that stear the robot by difference in rotation speed between the left wheel and the right wheel. It does not require any additional actuator, only controling the wheel speed will do.

sourced from : http://elm-chan.org

GANTT CHART

Project Brief

We are to build and test an intelligent buggy which will have two modes of operation. This mode will be selectable by the use of a switch.

The first operation is for the buggy to follow a line made from a dark magnetic strip of 20mm width. The deviations of the line will be at no more than 45 degrees.

The second operation is for the buggy to read road markings (90 degree turn left, 90 degree turn right and a T-junction) and execute the appropriate motion.

ROLE ALLOCATIONS

PROJECT MANAGER: IKHINE EHIMARE VICTOR

ELECTRONIC ENGINEER: ONWELL MOYO

PRODUCT ENGINEER: SIDHU RAJINDER

PROGRAMMER 1: NGANG ARNOLD

PROGRAMMER 2: NYAMBE ILUTE